Method for producing a membrane electrode including forming the membrane in situ

ABSTRACT

A hydrophilic cross-linked polymer obtainable by copolymerisation of hydrophobic and hydrophilic monomers that give a cross-linked hydrophilic polymer on polymerisation; a monomer including a strongly ionic group; and water is useful as the membrane in an assembly that can be used in an electrolyter or fuel cell. 
     More generally, a membrane electrode assembly comprises electrodes and an ion-exchange membrane which comprises a hydrophilic polymer including a strongly ionic group. 
     A method for producing a membrane electrode assembly comprising electrodes and an ion-exchange membrane, comprises introducing between the electrodes a material or materials from which the membrane can be formed, and forming the membrane in situ.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional application of U.S. application Ser.No. 10/236,665, filed Sept. 6, 2002 now U.S. Pat. No. 7,318,972; whichclaims priority to Great Britain Application No. 0121714.0, filed Sept.7, 2001; Great Britain Application No. 0200421.6, filed Jan. 9, 2002;and Great Britain Application No. 0200422.4, filed Jan. 9, 2002, whichare hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to hydrophilic polymers that are electricallyconducting and to their use in electrolysers and electrochemical cells,e.g. fuel cells.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

In an electrolytic cell, the input of electrical energy results in a netchemical transformation. A common feature of conventional electrolyticcells is that a substantial input of electrical energy is required todrive the electrolytic reaction at a sufficient rate. This expenditureof electrical energy reduces the efficiency of the cell.

Electrochemical cells, and in particular fuel cells, may be in the formof a membrane electrode assembly (MEA). Solid polymer electrolyte fuelcell MEAs typically have a multi-layered structure comprising (i) aProton Exchange Membrane (PEM), (ii) a current-collecting electrode, and(iii) an electro-catalyst layer on each side. A PEM operates by virtueof containing embedded cationic sites, allowing the transmission ofanions. Equally, a solid polymer electrolyte may contain fixed anionicsites, and which is capable of preferentially transmitting cations.References to PEM below are thus not exclusive.

A structure as described above is assembled from discrete elements andbonded into an MEA by the use of heat and pressure, before beingassembled between gas manifolds, the whole structure being sealedagainst gas leakage (and cross-over) to form a single cell. The processis complex and together with the inherent cost of the PEM and thecatalyst-coated carbon paper usually used as items (ii) and (iii)represent the principal costs of production of a fuel cell.

A limitation on the performance of PEM fuel cells is water management,in order that the PEM membrane remains adequately hydrated while in use.The conversion of hydrogen and oxygen to electricity yields productwater which appears at the oxygen electrode. If the membrane is toremain operational, the membrane must have sufficient water-permeabilityto redistribute the product water and prevent local drying-out of themembrane. Drying out leads to overheating and catastrophic failure(possibly even hydrogen/oxygen crossover with the potential forexplosive failure).

PEM devices operate by virtue only of the properties built into themembrane. In use as an electrolyser, the addition of water andelectricity yields oxygen and hydrogen; in use as a fuel cell, hydrogenand oxygen (or air) are used, and electricity results.

Existing PEM materials, e.g. Nafion, consist of a non-cross-linkedfluorinated polymer (essentially PTFE) with pendent side-chainscontaining an ionically active site (normally SO₃). Hydrophilicity isprovided by the SO₃ sites. These materials must be kept hydrated withadditional water (supplied via hydrated fuel gas) to operate. They areavailable as thin sheets, 10-30 μm thick, for assembly into cells(voltage 1V) and thus into cell stacks (typically 100 units).

A stack may be produced from individual MEAs. Since each MEA has to beproduced separately, and the stack built up in series, the production ofa stack is laborious.

Hydrophilic polymers, capable of having a high water content, are known.The level of water content determines their properties. Their electricalproperties are defined by the properties of the hydrating solution. Forexample, certain hydrophilic materials such as HEMA (2-hydroxyethylmethacrylate) and MMA-VP (methyl methacrylate-vinylpyrrolidone) are wellknown in the biomedical field as contact lens materials, but theypossess no intrinsic electrical properties. Thus, if hydrated indeionised-distilled (DD) water, the resulting polymer is a goodelectrical resistor but, if hydrated in an acid or alkaline solution,the material is a good conductor until the electrically active solutionwashes out when the hydrated polymer reverts to a non-conducting system.

U.S. Pat. No. 4,036,788 discloses anionic hydrogels obtained bycopolymerisation of a heterocyclic N-vinyl monomer, a sulphonicacid-containing monomer and a cross-linking agent. Polymerisation may beconducted in the presence of a water-soluble solvent in which themonomers are soluble; the polymer is obtained in the form of anorganogel from which the non-aqueous solvent is removed by distillation,evaporation or washing with water. Immersion in water causes swelling,to give a soft, pliable material that can be used to recover basic orcationic materials from an aqueous medium, or for the controlled releaseof such materials.

WO-A-01/49824 discloses a polymer obtainable by polymerising a sulfogroup-free monomer, a sulfo group-containing monomer and, optionally, across-linking agent. The polymers are useful for the attachment andgrowth of cells, and for biomedical devices and prostheses. They have ahigh expansion ratio.

Elements of this specification have been published before its prioritydate. See, for example, the Delegate Manual of the Fifth Grove Fuel CellSymposium, 22-25 Sep. 1997. These elements do not provide sufficientinformation for one of ordinary skill to practise the inventiondescribed below.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is based at least in part on the discovery thation-exchange membrane (IEM) materials, in particular PEM materials (butincluding cationic materials, as described above), can be produced basedupon hydrophilic polymers (i.e. polymers inherently able to absorb andtransmit water throughout their molecular structure). Such materials,modified to include sulphonic acid or other strongly ionic moieties, canbe made by bulk polymerisation from an initial monomer or pre-polymersystem by radiation or thermal polymerisation. Polymerisation should beconducted in the presence of water or another liquid such that thesystem is homogeneous.

According to a first aspect of the present invention, a partiallypre-extended hydrophilic polymer, capable of further hydration withwater, is obtainable by copolymerisation of monomers comprising: amonomer including a strongly ionic group; and solvent, e.g. a polarliquid. The resulting polymer is preferably cross-linked. A polymer orIEM material of the invention which is not hydrated with water canbecome hydrated (which for the purpose of this specification includesany degree of hydration, including maximum hydration) in use, e.g. in afuel cell where water is produced.

The present invention also concerns a hydrophilic IEM materialcomprising a matrix of a hydrophilic polymer, and held within thematrix, a molecule including a strongly ionic group. An ionically activemolecule may be held within the matrix by steric interference and/orchemical bonding. The polymer may be cross-linked.

The controlled introduction of electrically active sites results inmaterials that are both self-hydrating and electrically conducting inpure water. Such materials can be used as electro-chemical membranes,and also have properties that make them suitable for use in biosensorsand electro-optical devices.

The ability to produce IEM materials, by polymerisation in situ, allowsa one-step route for the production of stacks. Further, it is possibleto produce a composite polymer-electrode system in which a polymerseparator interpenetrates and extends the active surface area of theelectrode or electrode catalyst system.

According to a second aspect of the present invention, a MEA for anelectrochemical reaction comprises electrodes and an IEM, for example aPEM, wherein the assembly contains a defined channel for thetransmission of a liquid or gaseous reaction component to and/or from anelectrode. The assembly may also comprise a catalyst of the reaction,which preferably is in contact with the channel.

If each of two or more reactants is a liquid or gas, further channelsmay be provided. Each channel may be wholly or partially within themembrane; for example, it may be defined by the membrane and asurrounding matrix or support material.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A and 1B illustrate stages in known and new procedures,respectively, for preparing composite MEAs.

FIGS. 2A-2D respectively illustrate products of the invention havingcontrollable system parameters.

FIGS. 3-5 illustrate schematically embodiments of the second aspect ofthe invention.

FIG. 6 is a plot of conductance and IEC as functions of polymercomposition.

FIG. 7 is a plot of IEC and water uptake as functions of cross-linkdensity.

FIG. 8 is a cross-section of a product embodying the invention.

FIGS. 9 and 10 are plots of cell voltage against current for productsembodying the invention.

FIG. 11 shows the polarisation behaviour of a cMEA embodying theinvention and operating as a fuel cell.

FIG. 12 is a plot of voltage against running time for a cMEA embodyingthe invention and running as a fuel cell at a constant current of 10 mA.

DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

Hydrophilic copolymers can be formed by the polymerisation from solutionof a monomer mixture typically comprising:

-   (a) a hydrophobic/structural comonomer such as MMA, AN    (acrylonitrile), polyamide or TRIS, and-   (b) a hydrophilic but not necessarily electrically active comonomer    such as VP, HEMA, etc.

The presence of both hydrophilic and hydrophobic monomers allows controlof the electrical properties separately from the hydraulic properties,as may be appropriate for the separate requirements of a membrane andthe membrane/catalyst/electrode interface. The relative amounts of thesemonomers allow controlled swellability, and allow the product to berigid, or solid and elastic.

Cross-linked materials may be formed by using γ-irradiation or thermalirradiation. For example, ionising radiation, e.g. 90 MeV gammaradiation from a Cobalt 60 source may be used, in which case nocross-linking agent needs to be added. Nevertheless, it is possible tocontrol the properties of the final material by the addition of:

-   (c) a chemical cross-linking agent such as allyl methacrylate or    ethylene glycol dimethacrylate, and-   (d) a chemical initiator such as AIBN (azoisobutyronitrile) or    azobiscyclohexanecarbonitrile.

If the material is to be thermally initiated and cross-linked, thencomponents (c) and (d) above become essential to the process.

The present invention concerns the conversion of such hydrophilicmaterials to electrically active systems, cationic or anionic, by theaddition of:

-   (e) an electrically active molecule held within the matrix of the    hydrophilic polymer; or-   (f) an electrically active comonomer.

The electrically active component can be based either upon an acid, e.g.a sulphonic acid (SO₃), phosphoric or phosphonic acid, or a base oralkali, e.g. a compound providing OH ions such as KOH, NaOH or ammoniumhydroxide, or vinylbenzyltrimethylammonium chloride. The preferredmonomer is 2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulphonic acid (AMPS),styrenesulphonic acid (SA), vinylsulphonic acid (VA) or SOMA. It is alsopossible that component (a) or (b) may be modified so that it alsofunctions as component (f).

An electrically active molecule (e) may be held within the matrix bysteric interference as an alternative to, or in addition to, chemicalbonding. Addition of a swelling liquid (e.g. ethyl alcohol) to thehydrophilic polymer can cause greater swelling than with water.Ionically active molecules dissolved in the swelling liquid willexchange for water by diffusion and the polymer will shrink, therebyentrapping the molecules within the matrix. Such an effect is observedwith 50:50 MMVA-VP copolymer and ionic molecules dissolved in ethylalcohol.

One or more types of ionically active molecules can be introduced intothe matrix using this method. Subsequent activation of the material bygamma-irradiation may cause a reaction between introduced molecules, toform a molecule larger than those entrapped by steric interference,and/or a binding reaction of an introduced molecule with the polymermatrix.

In a solid polymer electrolyte as used in any form of PEM system, theionic conduction (C_(i)) should be very much greater than the electronicconduction (C_(e)). A C_(e)/C_(i) ratio of less than 0.1 is desirablefor successful operation.

A product of the invention may be produced by polymerisation of themonomers and water or another liquid in which component (f) is solubleand with which the other components are miscible. The involvement ofwater is not fully understood, but as an acidic or alkaline solution itapparently acts as a comonomer and mediates the introduction of the acidor alkali moieties into the cross-linked polymer structure. Afterpolymerisation, some or all of the water may be removed, but rehydrationdoes not necessarily give the product obtained before drying.

Considerations that should be given to the materials include theirhydrophilicity, for control of water and gas permeability independent ofthe electrical properties, and their cross-linking, for stability; theuse of sulphonic acid, phosphoric acid, etc; the use of alkaline sidechain for alkaline fuel cells; and the use of water or alcohol to carrythe electrically active moiety into the polymer, the polar solutionacting (unexpectedly) as a co-monomer. As the polymer, AN-VP plus AMPSis preferred, but other suitable monomer combinations include MMA-VP;MMA-HEMA; perm with AMPS<VSA<SSA<TSA etc;

In order to produce a consistent, homogeneous and isotropic polymer, theindividual components should be soluble, one in another, or mutuallymiscible. By way of example, sulphonic acid-containing moieties aregenerally not soluble in other preferred comonomers. It has been foundthat an effective route to carrying the sulphonic acid component intothe final monomer mixture is to dissolve the acid in water (or alcoholor other suitable polar liquid) and incorporate the solution into themonomer mixture. The ultimate SO₃ content (and therefore the electricalproperties) depends upon, inter alia, the solubility of the sulphonicacid moiety in water, the ability of the other comonomers to be misciblewith a given volume fraction of acid solution, and the stability of theresulting mixture and its ability to be polymerised.

It has been found that AN-VP systems are miscible with significantvolume fractions of aqueous acid. An aqueous solution containing up to50% of the final monomer mixture can be used effectively as a comonomer.

When exposed to gamma radiation, the monomer mixture may become viscousand then form a solid but elastic cross-linked mass, e.g. at totaldosages of 0.1-3.0 Mrad.

As an alternative to polymerisation of the monomers directly to thedesired polymer, a pre-polymer may first be formed, e.g. (i) by gammairradiation using a low total dose (typically <0.05 Mrad, & dose rate˜0.01 Mrad/hour), or (ii) by UV irradiation in the presence of asuitable UV initiator, e.g. 2,2-dimethoxy-2-phenylacetophenone. Thepre-polymer (which is relatively easy to handle) may then be convertedto a final solid, cross-linked form by the subsequent use of (iv)additional gamma irradiation, e.g. to a total dose of 1.0-3.0 Mrad, or(v) thermal polymerisation in the presence of a suitable initiator, e.g.AIBN or azobiscyclohexanecarbonitrile.

The final materials are typically already partially pre-hydrated,containing significant water as an initial comonomer, and thus theexpansion to full hydration does not result in the additional degree ofexpansion normally associated with IEM materials. This significantlyreduces the hydration stressing and consequent delamination between theIEM and the catalyst/electrode structures which are normally associatedwith Nafion-based MEAs.

Some considerations that should be given to the polymerisation methodinclude:

-   (a) the effect of temperature upon the polymerisation, e.g. using    chemical initiators to avoid foaming, and/or using gamma irradiation    when refrigeration of the monomer allows control of rheology and the    solubility of any adjacent material;-   (b) the use of one step, using thermal, UV or gamma radiation or the    use of two steps via a pre-polymer using thermal/thermal;    gamma/gamma; thermal/gamma; gamma/thermal or UV etc; and-   (c) rheological control of the properties of the monomer mixture or    pre-polymer to enhance the filling process and control    wetting/penetration of the catalyst or electrode paper when used.

Considerations that may be given to the conversion/production of amembrane/MEA/cell stack include:

-   (a) the use of gamma-radiation, in one step from monomers;-   (b) the use of thermal initiators, in one step from monomers to    avoid bubbles;-   (c) the use of two steps, via a pre-polymer for rheology control or    special interface properties.

A “lost-wax process” (which includes the use of ice) may be used, e.g.to avoid flooding of manifolds. Shape-recovery polymers may be used forthe manifold or the MEA. Peel-off coatings on the electrode mesh may beprovided to define the “membrane”.

It is desirable that the polymer used in this invention should exhibitmaximum values of conductance and IEC at any given water uptake. Thewater uptake at equilibrium determines the volume expansion onhydration, and thus determines the mechanical properties and thelikelihood that any resulting composite MEA will fail by delamination onhydration, or on a change of hydration.

Another desirable property of the polymer is that the water uptake, theelectrical properties and the mechanical/hydraulic properties can becontrolled independently. Preferred materials allow the IEC andconduction values to be controllably varied, e.g. by a factor of 2,while simultaneously controlling the water uptake over a range of 3(from 30% to 85% by wet weight fraction).

An example of a suitable procedure for primary monomer selectioncomprises formulating samples using (AN or MMA or PA)+VP+(each of AMPS,VS, SA, and SOMA) in each of two sulphonic acid concentrations. Thesesamples were prepared using allyl methacrylate as cross-linking agentand polymerised by gamma irradiation. They were screened for conductancein DD water, mechanical properties, and water uptake. By this process,the initial spectrum of possible formulations (24 in all) was reduced tothe most preferred systems, based upon AN+VP+AMPS, which will be usedbelow for the purpose of illustration only. The primary reasons for theselection of AN+VP+AMPS were firstly that the system demonstrated higherelectrical conductance values than any other monomer combination,probably because of the excellent miscibility limits for the monomersand water-based solutions of the sulphonic acid(s), and secondly becauseof the mechanical properties. In all cases, the mechanical properties(tensile strength and tear strength) are functions of the equilibriumwater uptake of the polymer (elasticity increasing and tensile strengthdecreasing with increasing water uptake), but the use of AN was found toprovide the greatest tensile and tear strength as a function of watercontent.

As might be expected, the electrical properties when hydrated in DDwater were found to be directly dependent upon the concentration of SO₃sites in the polymer. In practice, the sulphonic acid moieties were notsoluble in any of the primary monomers, and were introduced into thesystem by dissolving the material in water and adding that to the AN+VPmixture. The maximum limit of the SO₃ concentration was thereforeestablished by the miscibility limits of water+SO₃+monomer beforeseparation or deposition of the components occurred. A satisfactorylimit could be achieved when using AN.

The equilibrium water uptake (in DD water) was found to depend uponthree parameters: (a) the concentration of the primary hydrophilicentity VP; (b) the concentration of SO₃ which acted as a hydrophilicentity additional to and additive with the VP; and (c) the concentrationof cross-linking agent allyl methacrylate (AMA). Equilibrium wateruptake increased with increasing VP concentration, increasing SO₃concentration, and decreasing cross-linker concentration.

Considerations that may be given to improvingelectrode/catalyst/membrane interfaces include:

-   (a) catalyst inclusion during polymerisation (integral catalyst);-   (b) carbon fibre inclusion during polymerisation (integral    electrode);-   (c) composite catalyst/electrode inclusion in the membrane;-   (d) the use of extended surfaces, which may allow optimisation of    the catalyst/electrode/ionomer surface differently on each side of a    fuel cell or an electrolyser.

As indicated above, the present invention allows the production ofcomposite structures (comprisingelectrode-catalyst-membrane-catalyst-electrode) by a one-step process.This represents a significant departure from any existing productionroute. If an existing carbon paper electrode-catalyst is used, themonomer or pre-polymer system may soak into it and reduce the gastransmission to the catalyst layer; in order to reduce any adverseeffects, the paper-based material should be as thin as possible, e.g.ETEK TPGH-030 carbon paper containing 0.35 mg/cm² platinum.

Production of a single composite fuel cell unit preferably comprises theconstruction of the catalyst-coated two electrode system assembly as a“mould”, leaving a gap for the membrane, and the introduction of the“membrane” as a polymer/pre-polymer, after which a single irradiationprocess completes the production process. This is shown diagrammaticallyin FIG. 1B which shows, in order, a cavity 11 betweencatalyst-electrodes as walls 12; the filling of the cavity withhydrophilic monomer liquid 13 and its irradiation; and the resultingpolymerised “membrane” 14, forming an integral cell in one stage. Thisshould be compared with the convention of procedure, shown in FIG. 1A,which comprises, in order, the separate obtaining-catalyst to electrodes15 and PEM material 16; assembly and alignment of the materials; andsealing, heating and compressing to make catalyst-electrode contact.

Because the materials are polymerised from solution (or pre-polymer),they offer a number of alternative production routes. For a finishedmembrane, they include:

-   (a) using a fibre reinforcement (1D or 2D), to control 1D or 2D    expansion on final hydration;-   (b) un-reinforced but biaxial pre-stressing, to control expansion    and prevent delamination when assembled in contact with the    catalyst/electrode structures;-   (c) incorporating a catalyst and/or a carbon fibre into the surface    layers, to form a chemically active and electrically conducting gas    interface, effectively a finished MEA but not dependent upon    conventional catalyst/electrode structures; and-   (d) casting the polymer surface against a “textured” surface, to    produce a polymer/catalyst reactant surface of extended surface area    and possibly enhanced performance.

Reference should be made to FIG. 2: FIG. 2A shows a simple polymer 21 ofthe invention; FIGS. 2B and 2C show the polymer with distributedcatalyst 22, single- and double-sided; and FIG. 2D shows additionally anelectrode 23. The electrode may be wholly or partially impregnated withthe hydrophilic material.

For a finished MEA using conventional catalyst electrode paper, routesinclude:

-   (a) a one-step process from monomers using gamma irradiation, as    shown in FIG. 1;-   (b) a one-step process from monomers using thermal initiators; and-   (c) a pre-polymer stage for rheology control or special interface    properties.

For a composite MEA, wherein the membrane is formed in situ in the spacebetween (and thus in contact with) the catalyst and electrode elementsone-step routes include:

-   (a) polymerisation of a liquid monomer or pre-polymer;-   (b) polymerisation of a monomer or pre-polymer in solution in a    suitable carrier;-   (c) a solution polymerisation process;-   (d) casting a liquid polymer in solution, with extraction of solvent    to deposit the polymer;-   (e) introduction of a suitable polymer as a powder, the powder being    compressed or sintered; and-   (f) introduction of a suitable polymer in its melted state, the    material solidifying when the MEA is returned to normal operating    temperature.

These processes for producing a MEA are not limited to plane parallelsystems. A composite membrane material formed by method (e) may beimpregnated with a material which provides or improves the ion transportand/or hydraulic properties. The impregnant may be effective asintroduced, or after it has been polymerised, cross-linked or gelledwith the membrane material. A composite MEA may also be manufactured bycombining two single-sided “half” cells within the thickness of themembrane. This can be achieved by using an additional polymerisationprocess.

For a finished multi-cell stack, routes of production include any ofmethods (a) to (g) for a composite MEA, and also:

-   (a) a one-step process from monomers using gamma irradiation, as    shown in FIG. 1;-   (b) a one-step process from monomers using thermal initiators; and-   (c) a two-step process via pre-polymers for rheology control or    special interface properties.

Again, the process is not limited to plane parallel systems.

In preparing a multi-cell stack, it may be desirable to prevent themonomers flooding the gas manifold structure (which would prevent thecell stack from operating). As an alternative to the use of aconventional blocking material, a pre-stressed hydrophilic material maybe used to block the manifold passages, a material which will recover toa shape which can be removed (sintered powder or shape change).Alternatively, a “smart” recovery material metal or plastics could beused to construct the manifold itself. The cell may be made and filledwith monomer, and polymerised to form the membrane, after which themanifold material is activated to regenerate the gas passages.

A membrane of a MEA device may comprise a matrix of a hydrophilicpolymer which is electrically inactive, but which contains a stronglyionic species held in the matrix; this confers overall electricalactivity to the membrane material.

For the purpose of illustration, a composite MEA may be formed betweentwo smooth PTFE plates, the separation between the electrodes beingmaintained using a porous polyester interlayer in either woven ornon-woven form, chosen to be inert with respect to the monomers used.The monomer mixture is then introduced into the gap (under nitrogenatmosphere), filling the separator material, and the cell is compressedto define the thickness of the structure. The mould is placed in anexcess of monomer and irradiated, e.g. by a two-stage process (lowdose/dose rate then high dose rate to completion).

The polyester layer maintains the separation of the two paper electrodesduring filling and polymerisation. Further, because normal hydrophilicmaterials expand isotropically on hydration, the introduction of such areinforcement is extremely effective in controlling the area expansionof the hydrophilic polymer membrane on hydration. Thus, although thematerial expands, the effect is to increase the thickness of thereinforced membrane rather than its area. This is effective inpreventing delamination of the composite system during hydration, priorto clamping and restraint between the plates of the fuel cell testapparatus.

This production route provides a composite electrode-membrane-electrodestructure interpenetrated with membrane material which, when extendedbeyond the area of the electrodes, forms an effective gas seal whenclamped between the manifolds of a fuel cell test apparatus.

Bubbles may form within the composite (normally within the polyesterreinforcement). This problem may be minimised by ultrasonicating themould after filling, and by using the two-stage polymerisation processwhich serves to minimise the temperature rise during polymerisation.MEA's may be fully hydrated and tested prior to installation in a fuelcell, using nitrogen to ensure that there is no possibility of gascross-over.

In the second aspect of the invention, the presence of transmissionpassages in the assembly allows a reaction component to come into moreeffective contact with the electrode(s) and also with any catalyst. Thepassages may be created by “lost wax” or “smart material” insertionscast into the membrane, and are preferably circular in cross-section.The assembly may also comprise discrete manifold structures which defineits physical limits, and a passage may be both embedded into themembrane and into the assembly's physical limits. The electrode and anycatalyst materials may be coated in the reactant passages after theirformation, or cast into a passage surface during a “lost wax” or “smartmaterial” process.

A flexible material, e.g. of a plastics material, may be used to definethe edge of the MEA and to provide electrical and/or gas separation. Acarbon fabric may be used as an electrode, and the fabric may beimpregnated with a layer of catalyst. In a fuel cell, where thereactants are hydrogen or oxygen, the catalyst is typically platinum.Similarly, an electrolyser for the electrolysis of water generallycomprises a platinum electrode. When an electrode is self-supporting orsupported by a “lost wax” structure, then multiple cells can be cast, asthe membrane itself forms the structure within which the cells areformed.

The membrane material preferably comprises a polymer which includes astrongly ionic group, as described above.

Embodiments of the present invention, containing a channel, are shown inFIGS. 3 to 5. The features common to each of these embodiments are anelectrode 32 (typically of carbon fabric, impregnated with a layer ofcatalyst), and a cast ion-exchange membrane 36.

FIG. 3 depicts an assembly wherein a flexible plastics material 31 (e.g.polyethylene) is used to define the edge of the assembly, with theseparation defined by a protrusion 34 of one boundary into acorresponding recess 35 in the opposed boundary. The reactants areseparately transmitted through channels 33 a and 33 b; one reactant isfed through channels 33 a, the other through channels 33 b. Thestaggering of the pairs of channels 33 a and 33 b results in anincreased electrode surface area compared to that of conventional flatelectrode assemblies.

FIG. 4 shows an assembly wherein the reactant is oxygen in atmosphere41. In this case, one of the bounding members shown in FIG. 3 has beenreplaced by a gas-permeable material 42, to enhance transmission ofoxygen to the reaction interface. The other reactant is transmittedthrough channels 43.

FIG. 5 shows electrodes 32 supported by a “lost wax” structure. Thereactants are fed through channels 33 a and 33 b as in FIG. 3. In thisexample, four individual cells are cast into the membrane, the membraneregions between individual cells defining three additional cells. If theassembly is a fuel cell, then the output current from cell connection 51is equivalent to that of seven individual cells.

The following Examples illustrate the invention.

Abbreviations and materials used herein are:

-   Hydrophobic Monomers:

methyl methacrylate (MMA)

acrylonitrile (AN)

methacryloxypropyltris(trimethylsiloxy)silane (TRIS)

2,2,2-trifluoroethyl methacrylate (TRIF)

-   Hydrophilic Monomers:

methacrylic acid (MA)

2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA)

ethyl acrylate (EA)

1-vinyl-2-pyrrolidinone (VP)

propenoic acid 2-methyl ester (PAM)

monomethacryloyloxyethyl phthalate (EMP)

ammonium sulphatoethyl methacrylate (SEM)

-   —SO₃H Moieties:

toluenesulphonic acid (TSA)

1-methyl-1-benzimidazole-2-sulphonic acid

isethionic acid, Na salt

1-hexanesulphonic acid, Na salt

hydroxylene-O-sulphonic acid

-   Monomers Containing Sulphonic Acid Sites for Copolymerisation:

2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulphonic acid (AMPSA)

vinylsulphonic acid (VSA)

styrenesulphonic acid (SSA)

2-sulphoethyl methacrylate (SOMA)

3-sulphopropyl methacrylate, Na salt (SPM)

EXAMPLE 1

Materials

Acrylonitrile-vinylpyrrolidone (AN-VP; 1:1) mixture monomer waspurchased purified and used as bought.

Methyl methacrylate (MA) (99% Aldrich) was distilled before use.

1-Vinyl-2-pyrrolidinone (VP) (99% Aldrich) was frozen and used ondefrosting.

Cross-linking agent used was allyl methacrylate (AMA) (98% Acros).

2-Acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulphonic acid (AM) (99%), vinylsulphonicacid (sodium salt, 25 wt % solution in water) (VSA) and4-styrenesulphonic acid (SSA), sodium salt hydrate, were all purchasedfrom Aldrich.

Sodium sulphopropyl methacrylate was synthesised according to U.S. Pat.No. 1,299,155.

Formulations

Eight different solutions of various compositions of AM, AMA and AN-VPin deionised water (DDW) were made up, as shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Components weight (g) and % Sample AM % DDW % AMA % AN-VP %Total OR 30 14.15 30 14.15 2 0.94 150 70.8 212 1-1.5AOR 3 18.6 3 18.60.13 0.82 10 62 16.13 2-1.5A6X 3 17.86 3 17.86 0.8 4.75 10 59.5 16.83-1.5A8X 3 17.58 3 17.58 1.06 6.24 10 58.6 17.06 4-1.5A10X 3 17.31 317.31 1.33 7.67 10 57.7 17.33 5-2aOR 4 22.06 4 22.06 0.13 0.73 10 55.218.13 6-2A4X 4 21.58 4 21.58 0.53 2.87 10 54 18.53 7-2A8X 4 20.98 420.98 1.06 5.58 10 52.5 19.06 8-2A10X 4 20.69 4 20.69 1.33 6.88 10 51.719.33Preparation of Monomers for Radiation Polymerisation

The various sulphonic acids were dissolved in distilled water beforeadding them to AN-VP (1:1). AMA was then added to the mixture andstirred. The solutions were either dispensed into aluminium cells linedwith PTFE and sealed or into a container with plastic plates.

The monomers were introduced into the cell with the bottom plate flat onthe surface and filled from the top until the monomer reached the top.The top plate was then placed over the filled bottom plate and G clampswere used to secure the two plates together. The plates were then placedupright in an ultrasonic bath to get rid of bubbles in the system, for30 min, before exposure to gamma radiation, in the upright position. AMEA was made in situ by placing a piece of nonwoven material saturatedwith monomer in between two electrodes between two plates beforeirradiation.

Irradiation Details

Single-step irradiation was conducted for 20 hours, at a dose rate of0.125 Mrad/hr, to a total dose of 2.50 Mrad.

Two-step irradiation was also used. When the formula was OR, initialirradiation was for 29 hours at 0.01 Mrad/hr (=0.29 Mrad), followed by asecond dose, for 80 hours at 0.03 Mrad/hr (=2.40 Mrad). Where theformula was 1.5 OR, the first dose was for 20 hours at 0.01 Mrad/hr(=0.25 Mrad), and the second dose for 6.83 hours at 0.03 Mrad/hr(=1.7075 Mrad).

During this irradiation, as the sample was so close to the source, thecontainer was turned through 180° approximately halfway through. Thisirradiation was slightly lower than that normally given to previoussamples, at ca. 2.5 Mrad.

Water Uptake

Sections of the membrane were immersed in deionised water for 24 h atroom temperature, dried with blotting paper to remove surface water andweighed. The membranes were then dried in a vacuum oven at 60° C. toconstant mass. The water uptake may be determined using[(M_(h)−M_(d))/M_(h)]×100%, where M_(h) and M_(d) are the masses of thehydrated and dried membrane, respectively.

Ion Exchange Capacity Measurement

Samples of the membrane were hydrated in HCl (0.1M) (50 ml) solution atambient temperature for 24 h. The samples were then blotted dry withtissue and placed in NaOH (0.1M) (50 ml) and allowed to exchange for 24h. Three aliquots (10 ml) of this NaOH solution were then titratedagainst HCl (0.1M). Phenolphthalein was used as the indicator. Thesamples were then tissue-dried again, and placed back into HCl (01.M)(50 ml) overnight before the samples were placed in a vacuum oven at110° C. for 8 hours and cooled in a desiccator.

IEC was calculated as follows:Molarity of NaOH after exchange=[(Molarity of HCl)×average Titre]÷10Change in Molarity (X)=(Molarity of NaOH before exchange)−(Moiety ofNaOH after exchange)

100 ml contains (X) mols Na⁺

50 ml contains (X/1000)×50 moles Na⁺=Y

Y moles Na⁺ ions were exchanged with Z grams dry membrane

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{Y}{Z} = {{moles}\mspace{14mu}{Na}^{+}\mspace{14mu}{per}\mspace{14mu}{gram}}} \\{= {\frac{Y}{Z \times 1000}\mspace{14mu} A\mspace{14mu}{milliequivalents}{\mspace{11mu}\mspace{14mu}}{per}\mspace{14mu}{gram}\mspace{14mu}{dry}\mspace{14mu}{membrane}}}\end{matrix}$Resistance Measurements Under Different Conditions and Conductivity

Resistance of the hydrated membrane was measured in a cell at roomtemperature using a Phillips Model PM 6303 RCL resistance meter. Thesamples were tissue-dried then coated with a thin layer of electrode geland placed between the dried electrodes which were also coated with athin layer of electrode gel. Its conductivity was then calculated fromits thickness and area (1 cm×1 cm).

Resistance of hydrated samples (1.8 cm diameter discs; 2.54 cm²) wasalso measured using a Solarton SI 1260 Impedance Analyser.

Materials that embody the invention have been tested for:

-   (a) equilibrium water uptake by gravimetric means, and by measuring    the linear expansion ratio of samples of known dry size;-   (b) gas permeability using a co-axial oxygen probe designed for use    with bio-medial membranes (ISO 9913 Part 1). Although a    well-established method for conventional hydrophilic materials,    sulphonic acid-containing materials make accurate measurements    difficult. However, gas transmission values within 15% of the values    for conventional hydrophilic materials of comparable water uptake    were established and are considered reasonable in view of the    difficulties of measurement;-   (c) thermal conductivity, measured in the fully hydrated state using    the rapid transient thermal conductivity measuring apparatus    described in ERA Report 5231 (1969) by G. Mole. The conductivity    values were found to be a function of water uptake, increasing from    0.45 W/m.K for a material of 55% water uptake (equivalent to 78% of    the conductivity of water) to 0.58 W/m. K for a material of 85%    water uptake (equivalent to 95% of the conductivity of pure water);-   (d) ion exchange capacity, carried out on (i) samples of material    made as blocks and irradiated in parallel with the membrane    materials, and (ii) samples of membrane material taken from the    ‘surplus’ material beyond the MEA proper (see below). Samples of the    material were hydrated in HCl (0.1M) solution for 24 hours. The    samples were then placed in NaOH (0.1M) for a further 24 hours to    exchange, and the resulting NaOH solution titrated against HCl.-   (e) thermal stability, using thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) and    wash out on hydration. The materials were found to be remarkably    stable on heating when compared with Nafion: the AN-VP-AMPS    copolymer losing only 4% of its mass at 150° C. (comparable with    Nafion) while retaining a remarkable 42% even at 800° C. (the    residue for Nafion 0 at temperatures above 500° C.).

In order to evaluate conductance and IEC values, an additional sample ofthe monomer mixture used in the MEA was irradiated during the productionof the MEA. The AN-VP-AMPS materials were found to have IEC values inthe range 2-3, depending upon the precise manufacture route,corresponding to an equivalent weight in the range of 300-400. Thiscompares very favourably with Nafion, for which the IEC was 0.91 and theequivalent weight 1100.

The MEA's were fully hydrated in DD water and installed in the cellusing the periphery of the membrane itself as the pressure seal. Thusthe installation of the MEA's was unusually simple and a stable opencircuit voltage (OCV) was available within 30 seconds of applying theworking gases. The test procedure involved setting the current (via anelectronic load) and measuring the resulting cell voltage. The OCV wasre-measured at the end of each test sequence to ensure that the MEA hadnot suffered serous problems of de-lamination or degradation during thetrial.

In summary, materials have been formulated using vinyl-SA, styrene-SA,and most importantly 2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propane-SA, and theconductivities have been found to be comparable with or better thanNafion, as shown in FIG. 6. In addition, the use of cross-linking agentsallows the final water uptake to be controlled separately from theelectrical properties, as shown in FIG. 7.

Because the expansion ratio and the mechanical and hydraulic propertiesall depend strongly upon the water uptake on hydration, the control ofthe parameters set out above proved very effective in allowing theproperties of the resulting materials to be determined and reproduciblycontrolled. This is shown in FIG. 7, where the IEC values for a range ofpolymer formulations based upon AN+VP+AMPS are plotted as functions ofequilibrium water content and amount of AMA used. It is clear that it ispossible to provide a material of a given IEC value over a wide range ofwater uptake (and therefore of expansion ratio, mechanical propertiesand water permeability), if so required by any specific application.

FIG. 8 is a SEM photo of a cross-section through the edge of a compositeMEA in the dry state, showing reinforcement 81, two electrode papers 82,catalyst 83 and membrane material 84 extending beyond the electrode areato provide an integral gas seal.

The results shown in FIG. 9 (using a non-woven separator) and in FIG. 10(using a woven separator) clearly demonstrate that the composite MEA'smade by the single-step production process were operating effectively asPEM systems. The dotted line in each case shows the result of an MEAconstructed conventionally but using an AN-VP-AMPS membrane, i.e. bysimply compressing a plain membrane between electrode papers. The fullline is the characteristic measured for the same membrane materialconstructed as an integrated MEA. The improved performance is a clearindication of the excellent contact made between the PEM material andthe catalyst. The OCV was found to recover to its original value afterrepeated cycling (while fully hydrated), indicating that the process hadbeen successful in preventing delamination of the polymer from thecatalyst layer and carbon paper electrode material. An increase inmembrane resistance was observed to accompany drying, although this wasreversible on rehydration.

EXAMPLE 2

Materials

Acrylonitrile (distilled) 75 g (35.38%) Vinylpyrrolidone 75 g (35.38%)2-Acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulphonic acid 30 g (14.15%) Water (HPLCgrade) 30 g (14.15%) Allyl Methacrylate 2 g (0.94%)Mixing

-   1. The acrylonitrile and vinylpyrrolidone are mixed together and    stored in a sealed container.-   2. The acid is slowly added to the water. The mixture requires    continuous stirring to ensure complete dissolution of the acid. This    process may take up to twenty minutes.-   3. The mixture resulting from Stage 2 is slowly added to the mixture    resulting from Stage 1. It is important that the    acrylonitrile-vinylpyrrolidone mixture is chilled in a cold water    bath during this process as some heat may be generated with the    initial addition of the acid-water mix. It is also important to    continuously stir the mixture during this process to avoid a sudden    exotherm.-   4. The allyl methacrylate is added to the mixture resulting from    Stage 3 and well stirred.

The final mixture can be stored in a freezer for up to three weekswithout any noticeable effect on its ability to polymerise.

Assembly

For each cMEA, two appropriately sized pieces of carbon paper electrodeare placed on opposite sides of a thin non-woven polyester sheet. Thecarbon paper pieces must completely overlap and have their platinisedsurface in towards the polyester sheet. The role of the polyester sheetis two-fold. Firstly, it prevents the carbon paper electrodes frommaking contact with each other and shorting out; secondly, it controlsthe swelling behaviour of the resulting cMEA on hydration. Thinpolyethylene sheet is used as a partition on both sides, enablingmultiple cMEA's to be manufactured in one shot. Single or multiplecMEA's are placed in a sealable polyethylene bag.

The monomer mixture is introduced into the bag from a syringe coupled toa thin polyethylene tube, the end of which is positioned at the bottomof the bag. Prior to filling, the whole assembly is evacuated andflooded with nitrogen to remove atmospheric oxygen from the system.Introducing the monomer mixture directly to the bottom of the bagassists the removal of bubbles. The filling tube is removed and the bagis left to stand for five minutes, to enable the monomer mixture topenetrate into the separator material. Finally any air bubbles areworked out by gently squeezing the bag and sweeping them up and out ofthe liquid. At this point the bag is sealed.

External pressure is applied to the bag via two rigid polyethyleneplates which are secured tightly together. This squeezes the assemblytogether, ensuring the carbon paper electrodes are held in position andthat the resulting cMEA's are as thin as possible and of uniformthickness. Any excess monomer mixture pressed out from the cMEA's formsa reservoir at the top of the bag which is under some positive pressure.

Polymerisation

The assembly is subjected to a two-stage γ irradiation treatment asoutlined in Table 2.

TABLE 2 Stage Duration (hrs) Dose Rate (Mrad/hr) Dose (Mrad) A 29 0.010.29 B 80 0.03 2.40 Total Dose: 2.69

The assembly is placed horizontally, with the “top” of the bagcontaining the excess monomer positioned furthest away from the source.The distance of the centre of the assembly away from the γ source isdetermined by the dose rate. When the dose rate is increased, theassembly is moved closer to the source but the orientation is unchanged.

Polymerisation is an exothermic process, which effects a volumereduction of about 4%. The initial low dose rate is optimised topolymerise the monomer mixture slowly without overheating. The secondhigher dose ensures complete polymerisation.

The parts of the cMEA's closest to the y source will be subjected to ahigher dose rate than the excess monomer. It is intended thatpolymerisation will be initiated at one end in this way so that theexcess monomer mixture can act as a make-up reservoir to compensate forthe decrease in volume associated with this process. This method isbelieved to reduce the likelihood of void formation within the cMEA'sduring polymerisation.

Polymerisation may also be initiated thermally. This requires theaddition of a suitable initiator (such as AIBN) to the monomer mixture.The quantity of initiator required is typically 2% of the weight of theAN-VP mixture (i.e. 3 g for the quantities listed above).

Such a mixture will polymerise over a number of days at roomtemperature. Increasing the temperature of the system can reduce thistime. Initiation of polymerisation in the centre of the assembly mayreduce the likelihood of void creation in key areas due to volumeshrinkage on polymerisation. This can be achieved by the application ofa point heat source in the centre of the top of the assembly.

Separation and Hydration of cMEA's

The polyethylene bag is cut open, and the assembly of cMEA's is removed.The cMEA's can be readily peeled away from the polyethylene partitions.However, monomer mixture may have seeped around the edges of thepartitions and polymerised, bonding them together. In this case, cuttingthis region away from the edges makes for much easier separation. Caremust be taken not to bend the cMEA's on removal, as the carbon paperelectrodes are quite brittle.

Once separated, the cMEA's may be placed in separate sealablepolyethylene bags with some deionised water. The bags must be largeenough to allow for the expansion of the cMEA's during hydration.

The polyester separator material restrains the lateral expansion of thecMEA during hydration, causing most of the volume increase to be takenup by an increase in thickness. This has the benefit of reducing stressat the carbon paper-membrane interface, minimising any likelihood ofdelamination.

Testing of a CMEA as a Fuel Cell

A cMEA may be evaluated as a fuel cell in a system suitable for a singleMEA. The fundamental components of such a system used in this case are:

-   1. Two graphite manifolds, the area of which is larger than that of    the cMEA. Both manifolds have gas channels machined into one side,    the area they cover being equal to the area of the carbon paper on    the cMEA. With an MEA clamped between the manifolds, the assembly is    referred to as a fuel cell.-   2. Appropriate piping coupling hydrogen and oxygen of controllable    pressure to the gas channels of respective manifolds.-   3. A voltmeter in parallel to the fuel cell.-   4. An electronic load in parallel to the fuel cell that is capable    of drawing a user-defined current.

It is important that the cMEA is appropriately positioned between themanifolds so that the gas channels on both manifolds overlap the carbonpaper. The manifolds are clamped together via a bolt in each corner. Themembrane that extends beyond the carbon paper forms a gas seal with themanifolds as the cMEA is of uniform thickness (unlike conventional MEA'sthat require additional sealing mechanism(s)).

When hydrogen and oxygen are supplied to opposite sides of the cMEA, avoltage is observed. By activating the electronic load, increasingcurrent can be drawn from the fuel cell and plotted against cell voltageto determine the polarisation characteristics of the cMEA. The resultsare shown in FIG. 11. FIG. 12 shows further results.

Testing of a cMEA as an Electrolyser

With the cMEA secured in between the two manifolds as it was for testingas a fuel cell, nitrogen was flushed through the gas channels to removeany residual hydrogen and oxygen. Capillary tubes were coupled to thegas inlet and outlet ports on both manifolds and water introduced toflood the gas channels. On application of a voltage (2.5 V) across themanifolds, gas was seen bubbling up through the capillary tubes from thegas channels of both manifolds. It was observed that more gas appearedto be generated from the manifold coupled to the negative side of thepower supply. This is consistent with the evolution of hydrogen at thenegative electrode and oxygen at the positive electrode owing to thestoichiometry.

A sample of the gas generated at the negative electrode was collectedwith a syringe and passed through a Drager tube designed for theidentification of hydrogen. The result was positive, proving that thecMEA can function as an electrolyser to generate hydrogen and oxygenwhen subjected to a voltage.

The cMEA was then returned to the fuel cell test rig, and run for afurther 15 hours. Evaluation suggested that the running of a CMEA as afuel cell may be enhanced by pre-treatment as an electrolyser.

EXAMPLE 3

The procedure exemplified above was repeated, but usingvinylbenzyltrimethylammonium chloride (BV) instead of AMPSA, therebyintroducing cationic sites.

This material has been tested and found to have a significantly higherconductivity than Nafion (a 30% increase) when measured in the same testapparatus under the same conditions.

The material components are shown in Table 3.

TABLE 3 AN (g) VP (g) X (g) BV (g) AMPSA (g) Water (g) Z (g) 18.75 18.750.5 7.5 0 7.5 0.75

I claim:
 1. A method for producing a membrane electrode assemblycomprising electrodes and an ion-exchange membrane, wherein said methodcomprises: introducing in a space between the electrodes a material ormaterials from which the ion exchange membrane is formed, wherein thematerial or materials comprises monomers having ionic sites; and formingthe ion exchange membrane in situ in the space between the electrodes byfree-radical polymerisation, thermal polymerisation, or polymerisationby irradiation, wherein the ion exchange membrane comprises a matrix ofa polymer, wherein the matrix comprises ionic sites directly fixedwithin it by chemical bonding, and wherein the fixed ionic sites areintroduced from the monomers.
 2. The method, according to claim 1,wherein the forming of the ion exchange membrane comprises in situpolymerisation of the monomers or a pre-polymer comprising the monomers.3. The method, according to claim 2, wherein the polymer is ahydrophilic polymer including an ionic group.
 4. The method, accordingto claim 1, wherein the membrane electrode assembly is in the form of anelectrochemical cell.
 5. The method, according to claim 1, whereinforming the ion exchange membrane in situ comprises subjecting thematerial or materials from which the ion exchange membrane is formed toirradiation while the material or materials from which the ion exchangemembrane is formed is between the electrodes.
 6. The method, accordingto claim 2, wherein in situ polymerisation of the monomers or thepre-polymer comprises subjecting the monomers or the pre-polymer toirradiation while the monomers or the pre-polymer is between theelectrodes.
 7. The method, according to claim 1, wherein the polymer isa solid polymer electrolyte.
 8. The method, according to claim 4,wherein the electrochemical cell is a fuel cell.
 9. The method,according to claim 4, wherein the electrochemical cell is anelectrolyser.
 10. The method, according to claim 2, wherein thepolymerisation is free-radical polymerisation.
 11. The method, accordingto claim 2, wherein the polymerisation is polymerisation by irradiation.12. The method, according to claim 2, wherein the polymer is a solidpolymer electrolyte, and wherein the polymerisation is free-radicalpolymerisation.
 13. The method, according to claim 2, wherein thepolymer is a solid polymer electrolyte, and wherein the polymerisationis polymerisation by irradiation.